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The history of Pakistan (Urdu: ????? ???????? ?) encompasses the history of the region constituting modern Pakistan. Prior to independence in xxxx, the land that is now Pakistan was ruled in different periods by local kings and numerous imperial powers. The ancient history of the region comprising present-day Pakistan also includes some of the oldest empires of South Asia[1] and some of its major civilizations.[2][3][4][5] By the 18th century the land was incorporated into British India. Pakistan's political history began with the birth of the All India Muslim League in xxxx to protect "Muslim interests, amid neglect and under-representation" and to oppose Congress and growing Indian nationalism in return the British Raj would decide to grant local self-rule. On 29 December xxxx, philosopher Sir Muhammad Iqbal called for an autonomous new state in "northwestern India for Indian Muslims".[6] The League rose to popularity in the late xxxxs. Muhammad Ali Jinnah espoused the Two Nation Theory and led the League to adopt the Lahore Resolution[7] of xxxx, demanding the formation of independent states in the East and the West of British India. Eventually, a successful movement led by Jinnah gained independence from the British, on 14 August xxxx.On 12 March xxxx, the first constituent assembly of Pakistan passed the Objectives Resolution which was proposed by the first Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, proclaimed that the future constitution of Pakistan would not be modeled entirely on a European pattern, but on the ideology and democratic faith of Islam. The legislative elections in xxxx saw the Awami League coming to power and its leader Huseyn Suhrawardy becoming country's first Bengali Prime minister. Promulgation of Constitution in xxxx leads to Pakistan declaring itself Islamic republic (official name) with the adoption of parliamentary democratic system of government. The constitution transformed the Governor-General of Pakistan into President of Pakistan (as head of state). Subsequently, Iskander Mirza became the first president as well as first Bengali in xxxx, but the democratic system was stalled after President Mirza imposed the military coup d'état and appointed Ayub Khan as an enforcer of martial law. Two week later, President Mirza was ousted by Ayub Khan; his presidency saw an era of internal instability and a second war with India in xxxx. Economic grievances and political disenfranchisement in East Pakistan led to violent political tensions and armed repression, escalating into guerrilla war[8] followed by the third war with India. After an intense guerrilla insurgency, followed by war with India, the state of East Pakistan separated at a considerable distance from the rest of Pakistan and became the independent state of Bangladesh in xxxx. Pakistan's defeat in the war ultimately led to the secession of East Pakistan and the birth of Bangladesh.[9]Democracy again returned which was resumed from xxxx to xxxx under leftist PPP led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, until he was varnished by General Zia-ul-Haq, who became the country's third military president. Pakistan's banished-secular policies were replaced by the new Islamic Shariah legal code, which increased religious influences on the civil service and the military. With the death of President Zia-ul-Haq in xxxx, the new general elections announced the victory of PPP led by Benazir Bhutto who was elevated as the country's first female Prime Minister of Pakistan. Over the next decade, she alternated power with conservative Pakistan Mulim League-N (PML(N)) led by Nawaz Sharif, as the country's political and economic situation becoming worsen. Military tensions in the Kargil conflict[10] with India were followed by a xxxx coup d'état in which General Pervez Musharraf assumed executive powers.Self-appointing himself as President after the resignation of President Rafiq Tarar, Musharraf held nation-wide general elections in xxxx to transfer the executive powers to newly elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Jamali, who was succeeded in the xxxx by Shaukat Aziz. During the election campaign in xxxx following the parliament completing its term on 15 November xxxx, Benazir Bhutto was assassinated which that resulted in a series of important political developments when left-wing alliance led by PPP. The historic general elections held in xxxx marked the return of PML(N) coming to national prominence with Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif assuming the leadership of the country for the third time in the history.The Soanian is an archaeological culture of the Lower Paleolithic (ca. 1.9 mya to 125,000 BC), contemporary to the Acheulean. It is named after the Soan Valley in the Sivalik Hills, near modern-day Islamabad/Rawalpindi, Pakistan. The bearers of this culture were AHSAN. In Adiyala and Khasala, about 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from Rawalpindi, on the bend of the Soan River hundreds of edged pebble tools were discovered. No human skeletons of this age have yet been found. In the Soan River Gorge many fossil bearing rocks are exposed on the surface. The 14 million year old fossils of gazelle, rhinoceros, crocodile, giraffe and rodents have been found there. Some of these fossils are on display at the Natural History Museum in Islamabad.Mehrgarh, (xxxx?xxxx BCE), on the Kachi Plain of Balochistan, is an important Neolithic site discovered in xxxx, with early evidence of farming and herding,[11] and dentistry.[1] Early residents lived in mud brick houses, stored grain in granaries, fashioned tools with copper ore, cultivated barley, wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. As the civilization progressed (xxxx?xxxx BCE) residents began to engage in crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metalworking. The site was occupied continuously until xxxx BCE,[12] when climatic changes began to occur. Between xxxx and xxxx BCE, region became more arid and Mehrgarh was abandoned in favour of the Indus Valley,[13] where a new civilization was in the early stages of development.[14]The Kuru kingdom[22] corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Grey Ware cultures and to the beginning of the Iron Age in South Asia, around xxxx BCE, as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Vedic text to mention iron, as syama ayas, literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern India from about xxxx to 600 BCE.[21] The Vedic Period also established republics such as Vaishali, which existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from the previous tribal system towards the establishment of kingdoms, called mahajanapadas.Little is known about the Achaemenid Persian invasion of modern-day Pakistan as historical sources and evidence are scant and fragmentary containing little detail. There is no archaeological evidence of Achaemind control over modern-day Pakistan as not a single archaeological site that can be positively identified with the Achaemenid Empire has been found anywhere in Pakistan, including at Taxila.[23] What is known about the easternmost satraps and borderlands of the Achaemenid Empire are alluded to in the Darius inscriptions and from Greek sources such as the Histories of Herodotus and the later Alexander Chronicles (Arrian, Strabo et al.). These sources list three Indian tributaries or conquered territories that were subordinated to the Persian Empire and made to pay tributes to the Persian Kings: Gandhara, Sattagydia (Thatagus) and Hindush.[24]Crushing the Persian Achaemenid empire, Alexander the Great, the Greek king from Macedonia, invaded the region of modern Pakistan and conquered much of the Punjab region. After defeating King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (modern-day Jhelum), his battle weary troops refused to advance further into India[26] to engage the army of Nanda Dynasty and its vanguard of trampling elephants. Alexander, therefore proceeded southwest along the Indus valley.[27] Along the way, he engaged in several battles with smaller kingdoms before marching his army westward across the Makran desert towards what is now Iran. Alexander founded several new Macedonian and Greek settlements in Gandhara, Punjab and Sindh.[citation needed] During that time, many Greeks settled all over in Pakistan,[dubious ? discuss] initiating interaction between the culture of Hellenistic Greece and the region's prevalent Hindu and Buddhist cultures.Under Chandragupta and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture and economic activities, all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Mauryans were followers of Buddhism and Hinduism. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across all of South Asia. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.[29] After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan Empire's decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha.Greco-Buddhism (or Græco-Buddhism) was the syncretism between the culture of Classical Greece and Buddhism in the then Gandhara region of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan, between the 4th century BCE and the 5th century CE.[31] It influenced the artistic development of Buddhism, and in particular Mahayana Buddhism, before it spread to central and eastern Asia, from the 1st century CE onward. Demetrius (son of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus) invaded northern India in 180 BCE as far as Pataliputra and established an Indo-Greek kingdom. To the south, the Greeks captured Sindh and nearby coastal areas, completing the invasion by 175 BCE and confining the borders of Sunga's (Magadha Empire) to the east. Meanwhile, in Bactria, the usurper Eucratides killed Demetrius in a battle. Although the Indo-Greeks lost part of the Gangetic plain, their kingdom lasted nearly two centuries.The Indo-Greek Menander I (reigned 155?130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush, becoming a king shortly after his victory. His territories covered Panjshir and Kapisa in modern Afghanistan and extended to the Punjab region, with many tributaries to the south and east, possibly as far as Mathura. The capital Sagala (modern Sialkot) prospered greatly under Menander's rule and Menander is one of the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek authors.[32] The classical Buddhist text Milinda Pañha praises Menander, saying there was "none equal to Milinda in all India".[33] His empire survived him in a fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, Strato II, disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles, son of Eucratides, fled from the Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the Jhelum River. The last known Indo-Greek ruler was Theodamas, from the Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st-century CE signet ring, bearing the Kharo??hi inscription "Su Theodamasa" ("Su" was the Greek transliteration of the Kushan royal title "Shau" ("Shah" or "King")). Various petty kings ruled into the early 1st century CE, until the conquests by the Scythians, Parthians and the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan dynasty.The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia to Pakistan and Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura. Scythian tribes spread into the present-day Pakistan region and the Iranian plateau. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythians were defeated by the south Indian Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty .[34][35] Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century.[36]The Parni, a nomadic Central Asian tribe, invaded Parthia in the middle of the 3rd century BCE, drove away its Greek satraps ? who had just then proclaimed independence from the Seleucids ? and annexed much of the Indus region, thus founding an Arsacids[citation needed] dynasty of Scythian or Bactrian origin. Following the decline of the central Parthian authority after clashes with the Roman Empire, a local Parthian leader, Gondophares established the Indo-Parthian Kingdom in the 1st century CE. The kingdom was ruled from Taxila and covered much of modern southeast Afghanistan and Pakistan.[37] Christian writings claim that the Apostle Saint Thomas ? an architect and skilled carpenter ? had a long sojourn in the court of king Gondophares, had built a palace for the king at Taxila and had also ordained leaders for the Church before leaving for Indus Valley in a chariot, for sailing out to eventually reach Malabar Coast.The next important chapter in Pakistan's history begins with the arrival of another wave of Central Asian tribes called the Yuezhi, a branch of which was known as the Kushans. The Kushan kingdom (30-375 C.E.) was founded by King Heraios, and greatly expanded by his successor, Kujula Kadphises. Kadphises' son, Vima Takto conquered territory now in India, but lost much of the west of the kingdom to the Parthians. The fourth Kushan emperor, Kanishka I, (c. 127 CE) had a winter capital at Purushapura (Peshawar) and a summer capital at Kapisa (Bagram). Kushan's Bring new trends to Budding and Blossoming Gandhara Art, which reached its peak during Kushan Rule. Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have been seats of learning and art, centres of great religious activity and pivots of political power during that period.[38]The kingdom linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley. At its height, the empire extended from the Aral Sea to northern India, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. Kanishka convened a great Buddhist council in Taxila, marking the start of the pantheistic Mahayana Buddhism and its scission with Nikaya Buddhism. The art and culture of Gandhara ? the best known expressions of the interaction of Greek and Buddhist cultures ? also continued over several centuries, until the 5th century CE White Hun invasions of Scythia. The travelogues of Chinese pilgrims Fa Xian (337 ? ca.422 CE) and Huen Tsang (602/603?664 CE) describe the state of famed Buddhist seminary at Taxila and the status of Buddhism in the region of Pakistan in this period.[39]The Hephthalites (or Ephthalites), also known as the White Huns, were a nomadic confederation in Central Asia during the late antiquity period.The White Huns, who seem to have been part of the predominantly Buddhist group, established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan. Led by the Hun military leader Toramana, they overran the northern region of Pakistan and Nort western India and made their capital at the city of Sakala, modern Sialkot in Pakistan, under Toramana's son, Emperor Mihirakula, who was a Saivite Hindu. Hiuen Tsiang narrates Mihirakula's merciless persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries.[50] The Huns were defeated by the Indian kings Yasodharman of Malwa and Narasimhagupta of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century and were driven out of India.[51][52] White Huns are believed to be among the ancestors of modern-day Pashtuns [53] and Rajputs [54]Although soon after conquering the Middle East from the Byzantine empire Arab forces had reached the present western regions of Pakistan, during the period of Rashidun caliphacy, it was in 712 CE that a young Arab general called Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad empire, to be made the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh. But the instability of the empire and the defeat in various wars with north Indian and south Indian rulers including the Battle of Rajasthan, where the Hindu rulers like the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty and Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty defeated the Umayyad Arabs, they were contained till only Sindh and southern Punjab. There was gradual conversion to Islam in the south, especially amongst the native Hindu and Buddhist majority, but in areas north of Multan, Hindus and Buddhists remained numerous.[57] By the end of 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several Hindu Shahi kings who would be subdued by the Ghaznavids.Mahmud's successors, known as the Ghaznavids, ruled for 157 years. Their kingdom gradually shrank in size, and was racked by bitter succession struggles. The Ghaznavids lost the western part of their kingdom (in present-day Iran) to the expanding Seljuk Turks. The Hindu Rajput kingdoms of western India reconquered the eastern Punjab, and by the xxxxs, the line of demarcation between the Ghaznavid state and the Hindu kingdoms approximated to the present-day boundary between India and Pakistan. The Ghurid Empire of central Afghanistan occupied Ghazni around xxxx, and the Ghaznavid capital was shifted to Lahore.Later Muhammad Ghori conquered the Ghaznavid kingdom, occupying Lahore in xxxx.[58In xxxx, Muhammad Ghori, a Turkic ruler, conquered Ghazni from the Ghaznavids and became its governor in xxxx. He for the first time named Sindh Tambade Gatar roughly translated as the red passage. He marched eastwards into the remaining Ghaznavid territory and Gujarat in the xxxxs, but was rebuffed by Gujarat's Hindu Solanki rulers. In xxxx?87, he conquered Lahore, bringing the last of Ghaznevid territory under his control and ending the Ghaznavid empire. Muhammad Ghori's successors established the Delhi Sultanate. The Turkic origin Mamluk Dynasty, (mamluk means "owned" and referred to the Turkic youths bought and trained as soldiers who became rulers throughout the Islamic world), seized the throne of the Sultanate in xxxx. Several Central Asian Turkic dynasties ruled their empires from Delhi: the Mamluk (xxxx?90), the Khalji (xxxx?xxxx), the Tughlaq (xxxx?xxxx), the Sayyid (xxxx?51) and the Lodhi (xxxx?xxxx). Although some kingdoms remained independent of Delhi ? in Gujarat, Malwa (central India), Bengal and Deccan ? almost all of the Indus plain came under the rule of these large sultanates.In xxxx, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern-day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and founded the Mughal Empire, covering modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[59] The Mughals were descended from Central Asian Turks (with significant Mongol admixture). However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri who was from Bihar state of India, in the year xxxx, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah died, his son Islam Shah Suri became the ruler, on whose death his prime minister, Hemu ascended the throne and ruled North India from Delhi for one month. He was defeated by Emperor Akbar's forces in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November xxxx.Akbar the Great, was both a capable ruler and an early proponent of religious and ethnic tolerance and favored an early form of multiculturalism. He declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism and rolled back the jizya tax imposed upon non-Islamic mainly Hindu people. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the South Asia by xxxx. The Mughal emperors married local royalty and allied themselves with local maharajas. For a short time in the late 16th century, Lahore was the capital of the empire. The architectural legacy of the Mughals in Lahore includes the Shalimar Gardens built by the fifth Emperor Shahjahan, and the Badshahi Mosque built by the sixth Emperor, Aurangzeb, who is regarded as the last Great Mughal Emperor as he expanded the domain to its zenith. After his demise, different regions of modern Pakistan began asserting independence. The empire went into a slow decline after xxxx and its last sovereign, ruling around Delhi regionThe Sikh Empire (xxxx?xxxx) was formed on the foundations of the Punjabi Army by Maharaja Ranjit Singh who was proclaimed "Sarkar-i-Khalsa", and was referred to as the "Maharaja of Lahore".[66] It consisted of a collection of autonomous Punjabi Misls, which were governed by Misldars,[67] mainly in the Punjab region. The empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Multan in the south and Kapurthala in the east. The main geographical footprint of the empire was the Punjab region. The formation of the empire was a watershed and represented the resurgence of the local culture and power which had been subdued for hundreds of years by Afghan and Mughal rule.The foundations of the Sikh Empire, during the time of the Punjabi Army, could be defined as early as xxxx, starting from the death of Aurangzeb. The fall of the Mughal Empire provided opportunities for the Punjabi army to lead expeditions against the Mughals and Pashtuns. This led to a growth of the army, which was split into different Punjabi armies and then semi-independent "misls". Each of these component armies were known as a misl, each controlling different areas and cities. However, in the period from xxxx?xxxx, Sikh rulers of their misls appeared to be coming into their own. The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the disbandment of the Punjab Army by the time of coronation of Ranjit Singh in xxxx, creating a unified political state. All the misl leaders who were affiliated with the Army were nobility with usually long and prestigious family histories in Punjab's history.[67][68]The constitution and principles of the League were contained in the Green Book, written by Maulana Mohammad Ali. Its goals at this stage did not include establishing an independent Muslim state, but rather concentrated on protecting Muslim liberties and rights, promoting understanding between the Muslim community and other Indians, educating the Muslim and Indian community at large on the actions of the government, and discouraging violence. However, several factors over the next thirty years, including sectarian violence, led to a re-evaluation of the League's aims.[73][74] Among those Muslims in the Congress who did not initially join the League was Muhammed Ali Jinnah, a prominent statesman and barrister in Bombay. This was because the first article of the League's platform was "To promote among the Mussalmans (Muslims) of India, feelings of loyalty to the British Government".In xxxx, a vocal group of Hindu hard-liners within the Indian National Congress movement separated from it and started to pursue a pro-Hindu movement openly. This group was spearheaded by the famous trio of Lal-Bal-Pal - Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal of Punjab, Bombay and Bengal provinces respectively. Their influence spread rapidly among other like minded Hindus - they called it Hindu nationalism - and it became a cause of serious concern for Muslims. However, Jinnah did not join the League until xxxx, when the party changed its platform to one of Indian independence, as a reaction against the British decision to reverse the xxxx Partition of Bengal, which the League regarded it as a betrayal of the Bengali Muslims.[75] After vociferous protests of the Hindu population and violence engineered by secret groups, such as Anushilan Samiti and its offshoot Jugantar of Aurobindo and his brother etc., the British had decided to reunite Bengal again. Till this stage, Jinnah believed in Mutual co-operation to achieve an independent, united 'India', although he argued that Muslims should be guaranteed one-third of the seats in any Indian Parliament.The League gradually became the leading representative body of Indian Muslims. Jinnah became its president in xxxx, and negotiated the Lucknow Pact with the Congress leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by which Congress conceded the principle of separate electorates and weighted representation for the Muslim community.[76] However, Jinnah broke with the Congress in xxxx when the Congress leader, Mohandas Gandhi, launched a law violating Non-Cooperation Movement against the British, which a temperamentally law abiding barrister Jinnah disapproved of. Jinnah also became convinced that the Congress would renounce its support for separate electorates for Muslims, which indeed it did in xxxx. In xxxx, the British proposed a constitution for India as recommended by the Simon Commission, but they failed to reconcile all parties. The British then turned the matter over to the League and the Congress, and in xxxx an All-Parties Congress was convened in Delhi. The attempt failed, but two more conferences were held, and at the Bombay conference in May, it was agreed that a small committee should work on the constitution. The prominent Congress leader Motilal Nehru headed the committee, which included two Muslims, Syed Ali Imam and Shoaib Quereshi; Motilal's son, Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, was its secretary. The League, however, rejected the committee's report, the so-called Nehru Report, arguing that its proposals gave too little representation (one quarter) to Muslims ? the League had demanded at least one-third representation in the legislature. Jinnah announced a "parting of the ways" after reading the report, and relations between the Congress and the League began to sour.The general elections held in the United Kingdom had already weakened the leftist Labour Party led by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.[77] Furthermore, the Labour Party's government was already weakened by the outcomes of the World War I, which fueled new hopes for progress towards self-government in British India.[77] In fact, Mohandas K. Gandhi traveled to London to press the idea of "self-government" in British India, and claimed to represent all Indians whilst duly criticized the Muslim League as being sectarian and divisive.[77] After reviewing the report of the Simon Commission, the Indian Congress initiated a massive civil disobedience movement under Gandhi; the Muslim League reserved their opinion on the Simon Report declaring that the report was not final and the matters should decided after consultations with the leaders representing all communities in India.[77]As the leaders of the Indian Congress were jailed and restrained, the Round-table conference was held, but these achieved little, since Gandhi and the League were unable to reach a compromise.[77] Witnessing the events in the Round-table conference, Jinnah had despaired of politics and particularly of getting mainstream parties like the Congress to be sensitive to minority priorities. During this time in xxxx, notable writer and poet, Muhammad Iqbal called for a separate and autonomous nation-state, who in his presidential address to the xxxx convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia.[6][78]An "i" was later added to the English rendition of the name to ease pronunciation, producing "Pakistan", by Ali. In Urdu and Persian languages, the name encapsulates the concept of Pak ("pure") and stan ("land") and hence a "Pure Land".[81] In the xxxx, the British government proposed to hand over substantial power to elected Indian provincial legislatures, with elections to be held in xxxx.[82] After the elections the League took office in Bengal and Punjab, but the Congress won office in most of the other provinces, and refused to devolve power with the League in provinces with large Muslim minorities citing technical difficulties.In xxxx, Jinnah called a general session of the Muslim League in Lahore to discuss the situation that had arisen due to the outbreak of the World War II and the Government of India joining the war without consulting Indian leaders. The meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of xxxx in the Muslim majority provinces. In his speech, Jinnah criticized the Indian Congress and the nationalists, and espoused the Two-Nation Theory and the reasons for the demand for separate homelands.[83] Sikandar Hayat Khan, the Chief Minister of Punjab, drafted the original resolution, but disavowed the final version,[84] that had emerged after protracted redrafting by the Subject Committee of the Muslim League. The final text unambiguously rejected the concept of a United India because of increasing inter-religious violence[85] and recommended the creation of independent states.[86] The resolution was moved in the general session by Shere-Bangla Bengali nationalist, AKF Haq, the Chief Minister of Bengal, supported by Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and other leaders and was adopted on 23 March xxxx.[7] The Resolution read as follows:No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims unless geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary. That the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign ... That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights of the minorities, with their consultation. Arrangements thus should be made for the security of Muslims where they were in a minority.[87]The French and British Empire had been under tremendous political and military pressure during the World War II, and the speculations of disintegration of their colonial empires was rumored in all over the British India.[citation needed] In North-West Frontier Province, the British military had launched the military expeditions to quelled the armed rebellion. In xxxx, the general elections were held which saw the leftist Labour Party forming the government in Britain and many Indians were seeing independence within reach. But, Gandhi and Nehru were not receptive to Jinnah's proposal and were also adamantly opposed to dividing India, since they knew that the Hindus, who saw India as one indivisible entity, would never agree to such a thing.[75] In the Constituent Assembly elections of xxxx, the League won 425 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (polling 89.2% of total votes) on a policy of creating an independent state of Pakistan, and with an implied threat of secession if this was not granted.[75]By the ending months of xxxx, the national government led by Prime minister Ali-Khan was able to settle the core issue of territorial boundaries, with composing the state with five provinces: Sindh, Punjab, Balochistan, North-West Frontier, and East-Bengal, and four administrative units: Gilgit?Baltistan (now a province), Kashmir (also a provisional state), Tribal Line aligning with the Local belt.[91] The harbour city, Karachi, being the state's first capital, the national government of Ali Khan was left to face challenges soon after holding the office. With the large numbers of Indian Muslims immigrating to Pakistan, the Nationalists in each province worried that the new nation was too fragile to withstand an international war, or even internal revolts such as the Balochistan rebellion in xxxx.[91] Considering this issue, Ali-Khan established a strong government;[91] his Finance secretary Victor Turner announced country's first monetary policy by establishing the State bank and federal bureaus of statistics and revenue to improve the statistical finance, taxation, and revenue collection in the country.[92] Ideological and territorial problems arose with neighboring communists states, Afghanistan and Soviet Union over the Durand Line in xxxx, and with India over Line of Control in Kashmir which was a theater of first war in xxxx.[91]Diplomatic recognition became challenging problem when Soviet Union led by Secretary-General Joseph Stalin did not welcomed the partition which established Pakistan; only Iran recognizing Pakistan in xxxx.[93] In xxxx, Ben-Gurion of Israel sent a secret courier to Jinnah to established the diplomatic relations, but no response from Jinnah was given to Ben-Gurion. In xxxx speech, Jinnah declared "Urdu alone would be the state language and the lingua franca of the Pakistan state", though he called the "Bengali language as the official language of the Bengal province.";[94] nonetheless, tensions began to grow in East Bengal.[94] Jinnah's health further deteriorated, and was succeeded by Bengali leader, Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin after Jinnah's death in xxxx.[95]During the massive political rally in xxxx, Prime minister Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated in Rawalpindi, and Nazimuddin became the second prime minister.[91] Tensions in Eastern Pakistan reached to its climax in xxxx, when the East-Pakistani police opened fire on students near the Dhaka Medical College protesting for Bengali language to receive equal status with Urdu. The situation was controlled by Nazimuddin who gave a waiver to Bengali language as equal status, a right codified in the xxxx constitution. In xxxx at the instigation of religious parties, anti-Ahmadiyya riots erupted, killing scores of non-Ahmadis and destroying their properties.[96] The riots were investigated by a two-member court of inquiry in xxxx,[97] which was criticised by the Jamaat-e-Islami, one of the parties accused of inciting the riots.[98] This event led to the first instance of martial law in the country and began the inroad of military intervention in the politics and civilian affairs of the country, something that remains to this day.[99]Suhrawardy's foreign policy was directed towards the improving fractured relations with the USSR, strengthening and establishing relations with the U.S. and China after paying first state visit to both countries.[104] Announcing the new self-reliance program, Suhrawardy began building a massive military and launched the plan of nuclear power program in the West in an attempt to legitimize his mandate in West.[105] Foreign efforts by Suhrawardy led to an assigning of American training program for country's armed forces which met with great opposition in East-Pakistan after his party in East-Pakistan Parliament which threatened to leave the state of Pakistan. Furthermore, Suhrawardy gave verbal authorization of leasing the ISI's secret installation to American CIA to conduct operations in Soviet Union.[105]Differences in East Pakistan further encouraged the Baloch separatism, and in an attempt to intimidate the communists in East, President Mirza initiated massive arrests of communists and party workers of Awami League in East Pakistan, which damaged the image of West-Pakistan in the East.[105] The Western contingent's lawmakers determinately followed the idea of Westernized Parliamentary form of the democracy when East opted for becoming a socialist state. One Unit program and centralizing of national economy on USSR model was met with great hostility and resistance in West, although the Eastern contingent's economy was quickly centralized by Suhrawardy's government.[104] Egoistic problems grew between the two Bengali leaders further damaging the unity of the country, which soon forced Suhrawardy whose political position in his own party lost an edge in a growing influence of cleric, Maulana Bhashani.[104] Resigned under a threat of Mirza's dismissal, Suhrawardy was succeeded by II Chundrigar in xxxx.[104]His actions also approved General Ayub Khan as the Chief Martial Law Administrator to enforce the martial law all over the country who asserted his position in all over the country.[107] Within two weeks, President Mirza also attempted to dismiss General Ayub Khan after Khan's action made him incapable of taking any decisions.[107] This move backfired on President Mirza who was soon to relieved from his presidency and exiled to London, United Kingdom in xxxx. The same year, General Ayub Khan appointed himself to the rank of a five-star Field Marshal and named a new civil-military government under him.[109] Upon becoming the President, Ayub Khan was succeeded by General Muhammad Musa as chief of army staff in xxxx.[110]The parliamentary system came to an end in xxxx, following the imposition of martial law.[111] Tales of corruption in civil bureaucracy and public administration had maligned the democratic process in the country as the public seemed supportive towards the actions taken by General Ayub Khan.[111] Major land reforms were carried out by the military government and enforced controversial Elective Bodies Disqualification Order (EBDO) which ultimately disqualified Suhrawardy from holding the public office.[111] Introducing a new presidential system called "Basic Democracy", which featured the Local government system in West-Pakistan and promulgate a xxxx constitution,[109] by which an electoral college of 80,000 would select the President.[109] In a national referendum held in xxxx, Ayub Khan secured nationwide popular and ground support for his bid as second President and replaced his military government into civilian constitutional government.[111] In a major development, the capitol infrastructure had been moved to newly planned state capital, Islamabad, all capital work development was relocated from Karachi to Islamabad.[112]The presidency of Ayub Khan is often dubbed and celebrated as "Great Decade" which highlighted the economic development plans and reforms executed.[112] Under Ayub's presidency, the country took a cultural shift when the pop music industry, film industry and drama picture began to notice by public and became extremely popular in the country in xxxxs. Rather than neutrality, Ayub Khan worked closely to make an alliance with the United States and the Western world to gained support and proceeded to join two formal military alliances, the CENTO in xxxx;[113] and the SEATO in xxxx, against the Soviet bloc.[114] During this time, the private-sector gained more power to control the national economy, educational reforms, human development and scientific achievements gained a lot of international appraisal from the global community.[112] In xxxx, the space program was launched with the continuation of nuclear power program on the other hand. Military aid from the U.S. grew unprecedentedly but the country's national security was severely compromised following the exposure of the secret spy operation launching from Peshawar to Soviet Union in xxxx. The same year, Pakistan signed Water treaty with India in an attempt to normalize the relations.[115] The relations with China further strengthened after the Chinese war with India, and both countries signed a boundary agreement which shifted the balance of the Cold War by bringing Pakistan and China closer together while loosening ties between Pakistan and the United States in xxxx.[116] In xxxx, the Pakistan Armed Forces quelled the suspected pro-communist revolt in the Western Pakistan allegedly supported by the Afghanistan, where subsequently American armoury was used to stop the rebellion. During the controversial xxxx presidential elections, Ayub Khan had almost lost the presidential elections to Fatima Jinnah.[117]In xxxx, after Pakistan went ahead with its strategic air-borne mission code named the Operation Gibraltar, India declared a full-scale war on Pakistan.[118] The war, which ended militarily in a stalemate, was mostly fought in West as only mild operations were conducted in East by India.[119] Controversially, East-Pakistan Army did not interfere in the conflict that brought a great ire in West against East.[120] The news of war with India was highly unapproved by the United States which dismayed Pakistan by adopting a policy of denying military aid to both India and Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistani War of xxxx over Kashmir and the Rann of Kutch.[121] A positive gain of the treaties was the re-strengthening of Pakistan's close historical bonds with its western neighbors in AsiaAmidst further allegations that economic development and hiring for government jobs favoured West Pakistan, the Bengali nationalism began to take a sharp rise and an independence movement began to gather ground in East Pakistan.[126] In xxxx, the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman presented demanded the provisional autonomy at the Round Table Conference held by Ayub Khan which was forcefully rejected by Bhutto.[126] The influence socialism spectrum began to rise after country's notable economist, Mahbub ul Haq, publishing a report on private-sector's schemes of evading taxation and the few oligarchs control over the national economy.[127] In xxxx Socialist convention attended by country's leftist philosophers and notable thinkers in Lahore, the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) was founded with Zulfikar Ali Bhutto becoming its first elected chairman. The Peoples Party's leaders, JA Rahim and Mubashir Hassan, notably announced to "defeat the great dictator with the power of the people."[125]In xxxx, the PPP tapped a wave a of anger against Ayub Khan and successfully called for major labour strikes in the country.[125] Criticism on the United States and Ayub Khan further damaged Ayub Khan's authority in the country.[125] By the end of xxxx, Ayub Khan forwarded the Agartala Case which led the arrests of many of Awami League leaders, but forced to withdraw after serious provisional uprising in East. Under pressured from PPP, public resentment, and anger against his administration, Ayub Khan resigned from the presidency in poor health and handing over his authority to army commander, a less-known in public and heavy alcohol drinker, General Yahya Khan, who imposed martial law and suspended the constitution, thus dissolving the presidential republic.[109][112][125]Witnessing the events and tensions, President General Yahya Khan was deeply aware of the explosive political situation in the country, in xxxx.[125] The progressiveness and socialism in the country was rising, and calls for change of regime was gaining momentum.[125] On a television address to the nation, President Yahya Khan announced his intention to hold the nationwide general elections in the following year and set his motion to transfer power to the elected representatives of the people.[125] Earliest authoritative decisions were towards the establishment of National Security Council (NSC) by President Yahya Khan to analyze the military and political situation.[128] Virtually suspending the xxxx Constitution, President Yahya Khan instead issued the LFO Order No. xxxx which brought radical changes in West. Tightening the grip of martial law, the One Unit program was dissolved in West Pakistan, removing the "West" prefix from Pakistan, and direct ballot replaced the principle of parity.[129] Territorial changes were carried out on four provinces of the country, allowing to retain their geographical structures as it were in xxxx.[129] The LFO No. xxxx had restored the borders and geographical positions of four provinces as of xxxx and the provincial assemblies and provincial boundaries also were restored.[129] The state parliament, supreme court and major government and authoritarian institutions also regained their status.[129] This decree was only limited to West, it had no effects on East.[129]Civilians in Ayub Khan's administration were dismissed by the military government appointment of high-profile joint military officers occupying civilian government assignments and posts. The Election Commission (EC) registered a total of twenty-four political parties, and the public meetings attracted a lot of huge crowd. On the eve of the elections in xxxx, a cyclone struck East-Pakistan killing approximately 500,000 people, though this event did not deter the people to participate in first ever general elections.[130] Mobilizing support for Six Points manifesto, the Awami League secured its electoral support in East-Pakistan.[130] The PPP assert itself even more densely; its socialist rationale, "Food, Cloth, and Shelter, and party's socialist manifesto quickly popularized the party and in a small span of time.[130] The intellectuals, philosophers, and Bhutto's charismatic personality, were the key factors that contributed to the popularity of Pakistan Peoples Party.[130] The Conservative, PML led by Nurul Amin, raised the religious and nationalist slogans all over the country.[130]Electoral results showed the Awami League, with achieved an overwhelming victory in East, but with no seats in West.[130] The PPP gaining majority in Western contingent but none in East. Efforts were made to start a constitutional dialogue but Awami League stood firm on its Six Points plan and refused to compromise on that issue.[130] The PPP's intellectuals maintained that Awami League had no mandate in Western contingent and Six Points did not really permit a genuine federation.[131] Although President Yahya Khan invited Awami League to for a National Assembly session in Islamabad, but did not handed over the powers to form the government due to constant pressure by PPP.[131] With no united concessions were seemed to be reached, President Yahya Khan consequently appointed Bengali anti-war activist, Nurul Amin as Prime Minister with additional office of country's first and only Vice-President.[131]Sheikh Mujibur Rahman then launched civil disobedience movement which effectively paralyzed the state machinery of East. Convening a round-table conference with Bhutto and Rehman in Dhaka, the talks collapsed and President Yahya Khan ordered an armed action against Awami League. Operation Searchlight and Barisal, led to a crackdown on East Pakistani politicians, civilians, and student activists in all over the East. An arrested Mujibur Rahman was extradite to Islamabad, while the entire Awami League leadership escaped to India to set up a parallel government. Popular guerrilla insurgency was initiated by the Indian organized and supported Mukti Bahini (lit "freedom fighters").[8] Millions of Bengali Hindus and Muslims took the refuge in Eastern India leading to Indian Prime minister Indira Gandhi announcement to support for the liberation war, providing direct "military assistance".[132] On March xxxx, regional commander, Major Ziaur Rahman of East-Pakistan Army declared the independence of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh on behalf of Mujib.Indian intelligence agency, the RAW, funded and coordinated the insurgency and the final military intervention by Indian forces led to a large-scale war on 3 December xxxx.[131] Untrained in guerrilla warfare, the Eastern high command quickly scrambled its operational capabilities under its commanders, General Amir Niazi and Admiral Muhammad Sharif.[131] Exhausted, outflanked and overwhelmed, the Eastern high command could no longer continue its fight against the intense guerrilla insurgency, and finally surrendered the East to Indian Army.[131] Nearly 90,000 soldiers taken as prisoners of war and the result was the defacto emergence of the new nation of Bangladesh,[9] thus ending 24 years of turbulent union of the two wings.[131] The figures of the Bengali civilian death toll from the entire civil war vary greatly, depending on the sources. Killing of Bengalis was unsupported by the people of West Pakistan, it continued for illegally continued for nine long months.[131] Pakistan's official report, by the Hamood-ur-Rahman Commission, placed the figure at only 26,000, while estimates range up to 3 million. Discredited by the defeat, President General Yahya Khan resigned and Bhutto was inaugurated as president and chief martial law administrator on 20 December xxxx.[131]The xxxx war and separation of East-Pakistan demoralized and shattered the nation. President General Yahya Khan handed over the political power to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of the Pakistan Peoples Party. With PPP's coming to power, the democratic socialists and visionaries came to the power for the first time in the country's history, under a democratic transition. Bhutto made critical decision after dismissing chiefs of army, navy and the air force while authorized home confinement orders for General Yahya Khan and several of his collaborators. He adopted the East-Pakistan Commission's recommendations and authorized large-scale court-martial of army officers tainted for their role in East Pakistan. To keep the country united, Bhutto launched a series of internal intelligence operations to crack down on the fissiparous nationalist sentiments and movements in the provinces. Proponents of socialism were supported as part of the internal policies and the PPP faced serious challenges, both on internal and foreign fronts.This period starting from xxxx until xxxx was a period of left-wing democracy, the growth of national spirit, economic nationalization, covert atomic bomb projects, promotion of scientific, literary, cultural activities and the left-wing socialism. Regarded as the period of reconstruction, rehabilitation, re-establishment, and the rise of the left-wing sphere of the country, the new industrial, manpower development, and the labour policies were promulgated in the ending weeks of December xxxx. In xxxx, the country's top intelligence services provided an assessment on Indian nuclear program, citing the evidences that: "India was close to developing a nuclear weapon under its nuclear programme". Chairing a secret winter seminar in January xxxx, which came to be known as "Multan meeting", Bhutto rallied a large numbers academic scientists to build the atomic bomb for national survival. The atomic bomb project brought together a team of prominent academic scientists and engineers, headed by theoretical physicist Abdus Salam to develop nuclear devices. Salam later won the Nobel Prize for Physics for developing the theory for unification of weak nuclear forces and strong electromagnetic forces.[133]In xxxx, a serious nationalist rebellion also took place in Balochistan province and led to harsh suppression of Baloch rebels with the Shah of Iran purportedly assisting with air support in order to prevent the conflict from spilling over into Iranian Balochistan. The conflict ended later after an amnesty and subsequent stabilization by the provincial military administrator Rahimuddin Khan. In xxxx, Parliament approved a supreme, but a new constitution, which provided the basis for the parliamentary democracy in the country. Bhutto and his government carried out major and serious reforms for establishment and development and re-designing of the country's infrastructure. First and foremost, Bhutto supervised the successful promulgation of xxxx constitution that validated the parliamentary democracy in the country; the establishment of Joint Chiefs Committee (as well Joint Strategic Forces Command), reorganization of the military, special forces and chain of commands in the military. Steps were taken for democratization of civil bureaucracy, election commission and the political structure, expansion of country's economic and human infrastructure growth, starting first with the agriculture, land reforms, and government-control (nationalization) of major private industries, industrialization and the expansion of the higher education system throughout the country. In xxxx, Bhutto succumbed to increasing pressure from religious parties and helped Parliament to declare the Ahmadiyya adherents as non-Muslims. Bhutto's efforts undermined and dismantled the private-sector and conservative approach for political power in country's political setup.Relations with the U.S. gradually went down, and completing the gap after normalizing the relations with the USSR, Eastern bloc, North Korea, China, and the Arab world. With Soviet technical assistance, the country's first steel mill was established in Karachi, which proved to be a crucial step in industrializing the economy. Alarmed by the surprise nuclear test by India in xxxx, the atomic bomb project accelerated as Bhutto redeeming and keeping his xxxx promised, "If India builds the bomb, we will eat grass and leaves, even go hungry. But we will get one of our own, we have no alternative.", to the nation.[134] This crash project reached a historical milestone in xxxx when the desired level of production of fissile core material was reached as well as first design of physics package which eventually led to a secret subcritical testings ("Kirana-I" and "Test Kahuta") in xxxx. Relations with India soured and Bhutto launched aggressive diplomatic war and measures against India at the United Nations. Openly targeting Indian nuclear programme on multiple occasions and pushing India on the defense, Bhutto's covertly worked on expanding the atomic bomb project on a shortest time possible. From xxxx to xxxx, Bhutto more densely emphasized his political position and faced an intense and heated diplomatic war with the United States and President Jimmy Carter, who worked covertly to damage the credibility of Bhutto in Pakistan. Bhutto, with his scientist colleague Aziz Ahmed, thwarted any U.S. attempts to infiltrate the atomic bomb programme. In xxxx, during a secret mission, Henry Kissinger threatened Bhutto and his colleague using an inhumane language. After the meeting, Bhutto aggressively put efforts to successfully develop the atomic project before the coming elections.
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